Osmosis Experiment free essay sample

Measure the length and width of a second raisin and place it in one of the salt water containers. Measure the length and width of a grape and place it in the second of the plain water containers. Measure the length and width of a second grape and place it in the second of the salt water containers. After 1 hour, remove and measure the length and width of each piece of fruit and return it to the appropriate container. Note any physical changes in the fruit and describe their appearance.After 24 hours, remove and measure the length and width of each piece of fruit. Note any physical changes in the fruit and describe their appearance. Written Lab Report Introduction Address the following questions: Define osmosis. Osmosis is a physical-chemical process associated with the behavior of water as a solvent in a solution to a semipermeable membrane to the solvent (water) but not the solutes. We will write a custom essay sample on Osmosis Experiment or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Such behaviour involves a simple diffusion through the membrane of water without expending energy.Osmosis is an important biological phenomenon for cellular physiology of living things. State a prediction for each experiment (all 4). I predict that the raisin submersed in the fresh water solution will expand and increase in size. The grape submersed in the fresh water solution will not change in size. The raisin submersed in the salt water will absorb water until the water solute level is balanced. The grape submersed in the salt water will shrink because water will be drawn out of the grape. State the independent variable; state the dependent variable.The independent variable is the concentration of the water solution and the dependent variable is the change (if any) in cell size of each fruit. What controlled variables were used in this experiment (what stayed the same in all trials)? The length of time submersed in the water solution. The temperature. The amount of water used in each cup. The amount of salt in the salt water solute. State a hypothesis for the experiment. Hypothesis: The raisins in both the fresh and salt water wil expand in size because the water content inside the raisin is lower than the water outside the cell.There were no signs of any water movement in the grape submersed in water or the grape submersed in salt water. Discussion Were your predictions realized? Why or why not? My predictions were somewhat realized. Again, I have no explanation for the results because it contradicted the process of osmosis especially the process of diffusion. It would seem that some molecules were able to pass through the cell. The only explanation would be that there was some salt content in either the raisins or grapes used. The pores may have been obstructed by sugar, in the case of the raisins. Does your data support or reject your hypothesis? My data somewhat supported my hypothesis.The cell membranes may have been contaminated or in some way obstructed. If a solution was provided with the exact same solute concentration as found on the inside of the grape/raisin, would you use this solution in the experiment? Why or why not? Would this solution be hypotonic, hypertonic, or isotonic in the context of this experiment? What do you predict would happen if you used this solution in 1 of your experimental trials? No, I wouldnt use the solution because it would be considered an isotonic solution which is expected to have no results or effect on the fruit. It would make for a balanced environment and therefore show no change in cell size o r characteristics. If the raisins were submersed in a raisin juice there may be a possibility that the raisins would turn to sludge. Is osmosis a passive or active cellular process? Explain. Osmosis is a passive celluar process because there is no expenditure of energy during this process. Can you propose an additional experimental design to test your hypothesis or suggest further studies that might be done? Osmosis Experiment using eggs, water and corn syrup. â€Å"Movement Across an Egg Cell Membrane† by Dr. Robert Pope and Professor Miriam del Campo of the Biology Health and Wellness Department at the Kendall Campus of Miami Dade College Implications or Significance of Data ResultsRed blood cells (RBCs) have an internal solute concentration of 0. 9 %. Plasma is isotonic in relationship to RBCs. What would you guess is the solute concentration of plasma? Why? The solute concentration would be 0. 9% because it is isotonic in relationship to the RBCs. Isotonic meaning same solute concentration. What would you guess is the solute concentration of intravenous fluid (IV fluid)? Why? I would have to guess it is the same solute concentration as the blood it is being introduced or less so as to not create any physiological damamge. What would happen to a patient’s RBCs if the nurse accidently put plain water in the IV line? Why? Nothing.Our body is made up of mostly water so it woulnt have any adverse affects to our system. It would be like drinking water. Explain, in approximately 2-3 paragraphs, how the human kidney uses osmosis to achieve osmoregulation. Include the hormones involved and explain what part they play. Include a brief discussion of homeostasis and negative feedback. The human kidneys are physiological filters that removes toxins through osmoregualtion. There are a pair of kidneys that are 1% of the weight or account for 25% of cardiac output. They spend a large amount of blood and they represent a 20 to 25% of cardiac output they control the concentration of most of the constituents of the body fluids and excrete the end products of metabolism. All living things, whether aquatic or terrestrial, are required to osmoregulation or osmotic pressure regulation. Many of them have managed to survive at hipotonicos or hipertonicos means by physical or chemical mechanisms to avoid changes of osmotic presion in their domestic environment. Kidneys through osmoregulation absorb large amounts of water to filter blood continually, but contouring tubes and the loop of Henle reabsorbe virtually all the water and a variable amount of salts. Osmoregulation is the process by which the body maintains homeostasis of body fluids, which prevents them from diluting or concentrating too much. Osmoregulation is nothing more than the regulation of water into the human ody, and performs this action by several mechanisms, mostly related to heart and kidney organs.

The Hidden Facts on Elementary School Essay Samples

The Hidden Facts on Elementary School Essay Samples Friendship has an assortment of smells. People have dreams that may be written about. It is possible to also get a variety of discounts on our site which will help you to save some more money for future orders or anything you want to spend them on. If you lack ideas, you simply should do a fast search. After discovering our website, you will no longer will need to bother friends and family with these kinds of requests. Sit down and evaluate every benefit provided by the very best companies you've found with the aid of your preferred search engine. Gossip, Lies and Elementary School Essay Samples You are an excellent communicator. Taking the lead from the previous bullet, be sure that your essay is genuine. Write an essay on the ideal approach to handle a bully. Which is the reason we have supplied you some informative essay samples that will be able to help you with your own. Composing essays would most likely be the very last thing on your mind. Write an essay about where you mean to go. The essay, for some applicants, can be among the most stressful areas of the application practice. At any time you feel essay based on compare and higher school and contrast essay. You are able to learn more about the world in writing. There's quite a few essays completed by them. To compose a middle school essay outline step one is to recognize the sort of essay you want to write. Most probably, you'll need to demonstrate your hand-writing, so be prepared to apply correct grammar only. There are many kinds of writing. Figurative language can be exceedingly crucial in poetry because it's a way to express our emotions and how we feel. New Step by Step Roadmap for Elementary School Essay Samples A few of the girls don't care about sports so you've got to go on walks virtually every gym class. If you want kids, elementary school is a superb place to interact with them. Basketball the individuals, for teens. Both of them are open Monday through Friday on the exact same days. The last class of the year was emblematic of the full experience. The role that may be played by sports for a child who's in school is large and significant. They may become involved in sports like running. One also has the understanding of distinct games or sports and the way they can or ought to be played. So far as accomplishments are involved, you might want your child to visit Harvard but since that's a very long shot, I would suggest mixing in your academic hopes with each parent's hope your son will emerge at the conclusion of high school confident he can take on anything life throws at him. This year I'm so excited because we've got a new art studio and I really like it. The huge pothole on Elm Street that my mother was able to hit each and every day on the best way to school would be filled-in. That's the reason why we go to school to learn about an assortment of subjects. Despite the fact that you pay for homework, we provide those options at no cost. In addition, the size of the classroom was very acceptable for accommodating the increasing amount of students. Additionally, with elementary school kids, you require fantastic class control abilities.

The Power of Counter Argument Examples in Your Persuasive Essay

The Power of Counter Argument Examples in Your Persuasive EssayYou can also make use of a counter argument examples in order to win your reader over to your side. There are, however, several things you need to keep in mind while doing so. If you can convince someone with just one piece of evidence, that may not be the right way to go about it. Therefore, you need to consider various elements before making your final judgment.First of all, you have to determine what is your intent when using counterargument examples. Do you want to persuade your reader to change their opinion? Or, would you like to simply get them to agree with you on some points?While the former can be achieved by providing strong points and evidence, this often fails to bring about results. Therefore, you must first convince your reader that they have been lied to and to tell them why you were lied to.Once you are able to accomplish this, you will be ready to write your strong point, which should have enough informa tion to convince the person reading your essay that they have been lied to. It will, however, take some time to do so, as you must provide sufficient data to support your premise.It is possible to base your arguments on little pieces of information or elements of the primary motivation of the other side. However, this method is rare and will rarely convince anyone to reconsider their views.The best way to use counter argument examples is to lay out all the evidence you have, and then show why it is correct. This can often make people switch sides and start to think about what their original opinion was, and how it turned out in the end.Using the material of the primary motivation in the essay is very powerful, and can often lead to people taking another look at what they believe to be true. Of course, the bad thing about this is that it takes too much time. You may even find yourself back in the same situation you were in before you began.If this is the case, you may need to find a way to educate the person on the primary motivation. If you can show them why they are wrong, they may be more willing to change their viewpoint.

The Newly Leaked Secrets to Comparative Politics Research Paper Topics Russia Disclosed

The Newly Leaked Secrets to Comparative Politics Research Paper Topics Russia Disclosed Don't forget you will have to conduct research work on this issue you finalize. To reach such directedness, it is necessary to restrict your topic. It's also important to pick a topic that's interesting for you. When it has to do with talking about best political science essay topics, or any other type of paper you should first have the ability to depict an important experience about the topic in context. The Honest to Goodness Truth on Comparative Politics Research Paper Topics Russia Now you know how to begin your research paper, you're probably thinking about how to keep going. In case you're feeling badly-prepared to pick a topic, you might also have a tough time preparing the proposal and producing a superior paper. The whole procedure of writing a research paper can take substantial time because there are many aspects to look at. 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Comparative Politics Research Paper Topics Russia Taking into consideration the irreversible place of the methodology portion of the research paper, methodology research paper example must demonstrate the method by which the researcher will show the hypothesis or maybe to decide the issue of the investigation. The research utilizes the documents as a way to describe the background of the issue in addition to to complement the received results with the reliable scientific findings. It i ncorporates the results of several interviews which were held in the form of conversation in order to establish a high level of confidence between the researcher and the respondent. Qualitative research is a powerful approach to comprehend and learn more about the meaning ascribed to a specific issue. For example, a master level research paper demands an expert with no less than a master or Ph.D. degree. Two main strategies are employed in comparative research. 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How to Find Comparative Politics Research Paper Topics Russia Online Typically, the political essays are primarily written in order to provide a thorough analysis of the practices employed by the politicians. Comparative government covers several of the very same subjects but from the point of view of parallel political behavior in many nations, regions, or time periods. When one compares, a comprehension of political reality may be accomplished by comparing the political institutions and practices of a couple of countries. The development in obesity has greatly increased throughout the last century. Get the Scoop on Comparative Politics Research Paper Topics Russia Before You're Too Late In the event you doubt that you're able to deal with the job, make certain you start looking for skilled help. If inherent doubts trouble the student at the start, approaching the instructor before the actual work begins is an incredibly very good idea. 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Essay Tips on Writing an Essay in Order to Succeed With a Visual Impairment

Essay Tips on Writing an Essay in Order to Succeed With a Visual ImpairmentHaving a visual impairment can be frustrating for any student who needs to write their essay in order to achieve college admissions. This is the reason why the sample essay master of education program with visual impairment concentrati is now available in order to provide students with tips on how to be successful with this type of assignment.The first tip will be to learn from your English teacher's grammar. In writing your essay, you will need to choose your words very carefully and use them correctly so that you do not forget the point that you are trying to make. If you do not pay attention to the words that you use, you could find yourself in a bit of trouble as a result. Therefore, if you want to pass your essay with flying colors, you will need to keep a close eye on the words that you use so that you do not miss your point of discussion or the intended aim of your essay.The second tip will be to pay at tention to the structure of your essay. Just like the structure of your vocabulary, the structure of your essay should be logical and well-organized. You need to make sure that your essay is clear, understandable, and does not contain any grammatical errors.The third tip that you will find in the sample essay master of education program with visual impairment concentrati is to know how to properly structure your essay. You should avoid long paragraphs and make sure that the sentences that you use do not have several common mistakes.The fourth tip that you will find in the sample essay master of education program with visual impairment concentrati is to ask for help from the teacher when you are stuck. In addition to practicing the parts of your essay that you know how to write, you should also ask the teacher for assistance when you are unsure about a particular part of your essay. This will make sure that you do not miss a crucial part of your essay and that you are able to cover t he points that you are making with clarity.The fifth tip that you will find in the sample essay master of education program with visual impairment concentrati is to not forget the fact that your essay is a work of art. It is important that you do not cut corners when it comes to the design of your essay.The sixth tip that you will find in the sample essay master of education program with visual impairment concentrati is to use examples to back up your arguments. It is important that you consider using examples to show how something can be explained. However, if you decide to use illustrations, make sure that they are properly placed so that you can clearly see the information that you are trying to convey.

The Puritans Covenant With God, As Revealed In Narrative Of The Capti

The Puritans' Covenant With God, As Revealed In Narrative Of The Captivity & Restoration Of The Puritans' Covenant With God, As Revealed in Narrative of the Captivity & Restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson When one thinks of the Puritans, images are conjured of Pilgrims sharing a Thanksgiving feast with their Indian neighbors. The Puritans settled in New England to exercise their religious freedom to worship God in their own devout (and some believed) overly zealous way. They were going to tame the savage Indian beasts, and all would live happily ever after. At least, that's what the myth would have us believe. However, real life bears little resemblance to its mythical depictions, and the actual relationship between the English colonists and the Indian settlers was always uneasy at best. When cultures eventually collided in the late seventeenth century, there was inevitable bloodshed. The cornerstone of the Puritan religion is that believers were the chosen people of God, and it is this unique relationship and its resulting covenant which is at the heart of Mary Rowlandson's harrowing 1682 memoir, Narrative of the Captivity and Restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson. A ?divine providence' special covenant had been articulated in Governor John Winthrop's ?A Model of Christian Charity? (Gleason hhr4-2.htm). The special relationship between Puritans and God was described as, ?We are entered into Covenant with Him. ... we shall be as a city upon a hill. The eyes of all people are upon us? (Gleason hhr4-2.htm). In order to satisfy this covenant, Winthrop believed that Puritans had an obligation to serve as the ideal Christians, exercising unwavering faith, regardless of the traumatic situations which confronted them. God would provide guidance and protection in return, which would allow these ?chosen' souls triumph over adversity (Gleason hhr4-2.htm). Mary Rowlandson's narrative personifies this devotion to God, and while not always understanding God's plan, the believer is always unquestioning. Mrs. Rowlandson's narrative begins in February of 1675, when a group of Indians, led by King Philip, descended upon Lancaster, Massachusetts, and attacked the English settlers living there, including Pastor Joseph Rowlandson, his wife Mary, and their children. Mary recalled that when her sister was dead and that Mary was wounded, ?She said, ?And Lord, let me die with them,' which was no sooner said, but she was struck with a bullet, and fell down dead over the threshold. I hope she is reaping the fruit of her good labors, being faithful to the service of God in her place? (299). Mary reasoned that her sister's covenant with God had been satisfactorily fulfilled, so she was now free to join her Creator. Mary didn't blame the Indians for being taken captive. Instead, she regarded it as God's test of her loyalty. The Puritans may have considered themselves God's chosen people, but this meant that much was expected of them. When assessing the mass destruction of her home in the aftermath of the Indian attack, she reasoned, ?Come, behold the works of the Lord, what desolations he has made in the earth? (299-300). As Mary, whose foot had been injured by a bullet, carried her critically wounded child in her lap, she mused, ?But the Lord renewed my strength still, and carried me along, that I might see more of His power... Oh, I may see the wonderful power of God, that my Spirit did not utterly sink under my affliction: still the Lord upheld me with His gracious and merciful spirit, and we were both alive to see the light of the next morning? (301). As long as Mary had her faith, she truly believed that she could overcome any adversity, including the death of her beloved child. After all, it was the preservation of her relationship with God, which was of paramount importance, and took precedence over any and all earthly ties, no matter how intimate. Her Indian captors constantly moved Mary from place to place, and despite her injury and subservient status, she was occasionally given special consideration. Mary attributed this compassion to God, not to the benevolence of the Indians. According to Mary, ?By the advantage of some brush which they had laid upon the raft to sit upon, I did not wet my foot (which many of themselves at the other end were mid-leg deep) which cannot but be acknowledged as a favor of God to my weakened body? (306). A special relationship with ?the man upstairs? inevitably results in special treatment, which seems to defy conventional explanation. Mary believed God was keeping

Intellectual Property Notes Essays

Intellectual Property Notes Essays Intellectual Property Notes Essay Intellectual Property Notes Essay One of the most valuable and neglected property of yours! OR You might be neglecting one of your most valuable properties! OR One of the most valuable properties of yours! If you ask someone walking down the street and ask him â€Å"What is a property? † Brand  is a name, design, symbol, or any other feature that identifies one sellers good or service as distinct from those of other sellers. What is a brand? * Brand  is a name, design, symbol, or any other feature that identifies one sellers good or service as distinct from those of other sellers.Example: Coca Cola  is a brand which is the intellectual property of The Coca-Cola Company. Apple is a brand which is the intellectual property of Apple Inc. * It is the most valuable fixed asset of any corporation. * Branding is a concept where consumers buy ‘the brand’ instead of the product. * Brand name, logo, design and any other attributes associated with it, are part of the brand and eventually part of intell ectual property. * Brand is a part of intellectual property. What is Intellectual Property (IP)? It is a legal concept, which refers to the creations of mind for which exclusive rights are recognized. * Creations of mind include: * inventions * literary and artistic works * formulas * symbols * names * images * designs used in commerce. * IP involves patents, copyright, trademarks, designs, brands etc. * It can also be defined as â€Å"information with a commercial value†. Types of intellectual property * Trademarks, including service marks * Copyright and related rights * Geographical indications * Industrial designs * Patents * Layout-designs (topographies) of integrated circuits Undisclosed information, including trade secrets Categories of Intellectual Property (IP) * IP is divided into two categories: 1. Industrial property: * inventions (patents) * trademarks * industrial designs * geographic indications of source 2. Copyrights Rights: a. Copyrights: i. literary works * novels * poems * plays * films * musical works ii. artistic works * drawings * paintings * photographs * sculptures * architectural designs b. Rights related to copyright: iii. performances of performing artists, iv. producers of phonograms in their recordings, . Broadcasters in their radio and television programs. Copyright  © * It is the â€Å"right to copy†, a form of â€Å"intellectual property† applicable to any expressible form of an idea or information that is distinct and applicable. * A legal concept in which a set of exclusive rights are granted to the creator/owner of an original work for a limited period of time to protect the originality of work piece. * They do not extend beyond the territory of a specific state unless that state is a party to the international agreement of ‘Copyright’. It is moral and economic right of authors, writers, publishers, performers and producers of sound recordings (phonograms). * The duration of copyright pro tection is life time of the author plus 50 years thereafter. The Exclusive Rights of Copyright  © * Only the copyright holder is free to exercise exclusive rights while others are prohibited from using the work without the copyright holder’s permission. * Major exclusive rights include: * To produce copies or reproductions of the work and to sell those copies (including electronic copies) * To import or export the work To create derivative works (adaptation from original work) * To perform or display the work publicly * To sell or assign copyrights to others * To transmit or display by radio or video Categories of Copyright Work/Registration Intellectual Property Organization (IPO), Pakistan has categorized the Copyright work/registration into following: Part-I:  Literary works * Books, * Magazines, * Journals, * Lectures, * Sermons, * Dramas, * Novels, * Computer Programs and * Compilation of Data Part-II:  Artistic works * Paintings, * Photographs, * Maps, * Charts, C alligraphies, * Sculptures, * Architectural Works, * Drawings, * Label Designs, * Logos, * Monograms etc. Part-III:  Cinematographic works * Motion Pictures, * Video Cassettes, * VCD’s, * DVD’s  Ã‚   etc. Part-IV:  Records Works * Audio Cassettes * CDs What is Copyright Infringement/Piracy? * It is the unauthorized and illegitimate use of materials held by copyright. * Infringing the copyright holder’s â€Å"exclusive rights†. * The copying of â€Å"intellectual property† without written permission from the copyright holder. What are Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)? IPR are the rights given to persons over the creations of their minds. * They usually give the creator an exclusive right over the use of his/her creation for a certain period of time. * IPR are customarily divided into two main areas: c. Copyright and rights related to copyright: The rights of authors of literary and artistic works (such as books and other writings, musical co mpositions, paintings, sculpture, computer programs and films) are protected by copyright, for a minimum period of 50  years after the death of the author. . Industrial property: Industrial property can usefully be divided into two main areas: vi. Protection of distinctive signs, in particular trademarks and geographical indications to ensure fair competition and to protect consumers, by enabling them to make informed choices. vii. Other types of industrial property are protected primarily to stimulate innovation, design and the creation of technology such as inventions (protected by patents), industrial designs and trade secrets.The protection is usually given for a finite term (typically 20 years in the case of patents). What is WIPO? * WIPO was established in 1967 and stands for World Intellectual Property Organization. * In 1974, WIPO joined the system of United Nations, becoming one of 15 specialized UN agencies dedicated to the use of intellectual property to encourage innov ation and creativity. * WIPO has currently 185 member states, which accounts for more than 90 percent of the countries of the world. These member states determine the strategic direction and activities of the Organization by meeting in the assemblies, committees and working groups which are WIPO decision-making bodies. What does WIPO do? * WIPO is to promote innovation and creativity for the economic, social and cultural development of all countries, through a balanced and effective international intellectual property system through: * Services systems which make it easier to obtain protection internationally for patents, trademarks, designs and labels of origin; and to resolve IP related disputes. Laws helping in developing the international legal IP framework in line with society’s evolving needs. * Infrastructure by building collaborative networks and technical platforms to share knowledge and simplify IP transactions, including free databases and tools for exchanging info rmation. * Development by building capacity in the use of IP to support economic development. How WIPO Works? * The WIPO Convention sets out terms governing WIPO’s mandate, functions, finances and procedures. * WIPO works with a wide spectrum of takeholders, including other inter-governmental organizations, non-governmental organizations, representatives of civil society and industry groups. * Some 250 NGOs and IGOs currently have official observer status at WIPO meetings. * WIPO has 185 member states which collectively determine the direction, budget and activities of the Organization through the decision-making bodies. WTO-WIPO cooperation agreement 1995 * The WTO and WIPO cooperation agreement was signed in 1995 and share a mutually supportive relationship.What is Geographic Indication (GI)? * According to the TRIPS Agreement, a GI identifies a good as originating in a particular territory where a given quality, reputation or other characteristic of the good is essentially attributable to its geographical origin (Article 22. 1). * GI does not only say where the product was made, it identifies the products special characteristics, which are the result of the product’s origins. * Well-known examples include â€Å"Champagne†, â€Å"Scotch†, â€Å"Tequila†, and â€Å"Roquefort† cheese. Wine and spirits makers are particularly concerned about the use of place names to identify products, and the TRIPS Agreement contains special provisions for these products. But the issue is also important for other types of goods. * Using the place name when the product was made elsewhere or when it does not have the usual characteristics can mislead consumers, and it can lead to unfair competition. * The TRIPS Agreement says countries have to prevent this misuse of place names. Some exceptions are allowed, for example if the name is already protected as a trademark or if it has become a generic term. * For example, â€Å"cheddar† now refers to a particular type of cheese not necessarily made in Cheddar, in the UK. But any country wanting to make an exception for these reasons must be willing to negotiate with the country which wants to protect the geographical indication in question. Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) * WTO negotiated an agreement with WIPO by introducing intellectual property rules into the trading system, known as TRIPS. The policies to protect intellectual property include granting of patents, trademarks and copyrights. * TRIPS contains requirements that nations laws must meet for copyright rights, including the rights of performers, producers of sound recordings and broadcasting organizations; geographical indications, industrial designs; integrated circuit layout-designs; patents; monopolies for the developers of new plant varieties; trademarks; trade dress; and undisclosed or confidential information. TRIPS also specifies enforcement procedures, remedies, an d dispute resolution procedures. * It establishes minimum levels of protection that each government has to give to the intellectual property of fellow WTO members. * It strikes a balance between the long term benefits and possible short term costs to society. * Society benefits in the long term when intellectual property protection encourages creation and invention, especially when the period of protection expires and the creations and inventions enter the public domain. The TRIPS agreement covers five broad issues: * Application of basic principles of the trading system and other international intellectual property agreements. * Giving adequate protection to intellectual property rights. * Enforcement by countries of these rights adequately in their own territories * Procedure to settle disputes on intellectual property between members of the WTO * Special transitional arrangements during the period when the new system is being introduced. TRIPS requires member states to provide st rong protection for intellectual property rights. * Under TRIPS: * Copyright terms must extend at least 50 years, unless based on the life of the author. (Art. 12 and 14) * Copyright must be granted automatically. (Art. 9) * Computer programs must be regarded as literary works under copyright law and receive the same terms of protection. * Patents must be granted for inventions in all fields of technology provided they meet all other patentability requirements and must be enforceable for at least 20 years (Art 33). Exceptions to exclusive rights must be limited (Art. 13 Art  30) * Legitimate interests of third parties have to be taken into account by patent rights (Art  30). What is WTO? * WTO stands for World Trade Organization, which was established on 1st January, 1995 with its head-quarters located at Geneva, Switzerland. As on 24 August, 2012, WTO has 157 countries as members. What does WTO do? * WTO operates and deals with a system of trade rules between nations on a glob al or near-global level. * It is an organization for trade opening. It is a forum for governments to negotiate trade agreements, to settle trade disputes with aims for liberalizing trade. * It is a place where member governments try to sort out their trade problems with each other. Functions of WTO * Administering WTO trade agreements * Forum for trade negotiations * Handling trade disputes * Monitoring national trade policies * Technical assistance and training for developing countries * Cooperation with other international organizations WTO- Purpose * WTO settles trade related disputes among countries involving conflict of interests. WTO is all about negotiations and everything done by WTO is the result of negotiations, which are signed by the bulk of world’s trading nations. * These documents provide the legal ground rules for international commerce and are essentially contracts, which bind governments to keep their trade policies within agreed limits. * The goal of such c ontractual bindings is to help producers of goods and services, exporters, and importers to conduct their business, while allowing governments to meet social and environmental objectives. WTO helps trade flow as freely as possible, as long as there are no undesirable side-effects. * It ensures that individuals, companies and governments know what the trade rules are around the world while giving them confidence that there will be no sudden changes of policy as the rules have to be â€Å"transparent† and â€Å"predictable†. WTO Trade Barriers * Trade liberalization or free trade involves the removal of trade restrictions or barriers on the free exchange of goods between nations. * Trade barriers include custom duties or tariffs and non-tariffs barriers, such as import bans or quotas restrictions. WTO negotiations have helped to liberalize trade by lowering these trade barriers especially for countries which have faced them and wanted them lowered. * However, WTO rules support maintaining trade barriers in some circumstances such as consumer protection, environment protection and disease prevention. WTO Agreements * WTO agreements cover principles of liberalization such as: * Transparent trade policies * Procedures in place for settling disputes * Lowering tariffs and barriers etc. * Any change in policies would have to be notified to WTO.WTO- Basic Trading Rules or Principles * Non-Discrimination: e. This rule has two major components which are incorporated in major WTO rules on goods, services and intellectual property. viii. The Most Favored Nation (MFN) Rule: A WTO member countries cannot discriminate between their trading partners e. g. if a country grants special favor to another country, the same will have to be granted to all other WTO members. ix. National Treatment Policy: Imported and locally-produced goods should be treated equally. * Freer Trade: f.To liberalize trade, lowering trade barriers including custom duties, tariffs, import bans or quotas restricting quantities selectively gradually through negotiations. g. It also discourage the use of quotas used to set limits on quantities of imports as it can lead to more accusations of unfair play or non-tariff barriers such as red tape, which involves agreements dealing with various bureaucratic or legal issues causing hindrances to trade such as import licensing, rules for the valuation of goods at customs, pre-shipment inspection involving further checks on imports, investment measures and rules of origin such as made in where? tc. * Predictability through binding transparency: h. WTO’s multilateral trading system is an attempt to make the business environment more stable and predictable while making countries’ trade rules as clear and public (â€Å"transparent†) as possible. * Promoting Fair Competition: WTO agreements support fair competition especially in agriculture, intellectual property, services, etc. Encouraging development and ec onomic reform: WTO system contributes to development by allowing countries to implement trade liberalization programs with flexibility of time. WTO Pakistan * Pakistan has been a WTO member since its inception and is one of the founder Members of the WTO since its inception. * Pakistan has been following an export led growth strategy since market access is of vital importance for its businesses.